[47] Other scholars have questioned whether it is Afroasiatic at all, due its lack of several typical aspects of Afroasiatic morphology. [180] Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession). [25][26], There are two extinct languages potentially related to modern Berber. p-Fula-Sereer In addition to the languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes many ancient languages, such as Egyptian, which forms a distinct branch of the family; and within the Semitic family, Akkadian, Hebrew, Phoenician, other Canaanite languages, Amorite, Ugaritic and Aramaic. In the series University of California Publications in Linguistics 126. The root form of the verb has only three consonants in common. [166] There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular. [87], Afroasiatic languages share a number of phonetic and phonological features. Ehret's dictionary lists "Proto-South-Cushitic, original homeland of the Afroasiatic family, "The feminine endings *-ay and *-y in Semitic and Berber", "A reconstruction of the system of verb aspects in proto-Berbero-Semitic", Afro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees, short annotations of the talks given there, The prehistory of a dispersal: the Proto-Afrasian (Afroasiatic) farming lexicon, Once More About Glottochronology And The Comparative Method: The Omotic-Afrasian case, Root Extension And Root Formation In Semitic And Afrasian, A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic_languages&oldid=1142726919, Linguist H. Fleming proposed that the near-exinct, Harold Fleming (1981) divides non-Omotic Afroasiatic, or "Erythraean", into three groups, Cushitic, Semitic, and Chadic-Berber-Egyptian. Potential Afroasiatic Urheimat near Lake Megachad as EL). [188] Andrzej Zaborski further notes that the numbers "one," "two," and "five" are particularly susceptible to replacement by new words, with "five" often based on a word meaning "hand". They are not found in Chadic languages, and there is no evidence for cases in Egyptian. The quality of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout AA is schwa. p-Central Togo [77][127] Berber, and Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are verb-initial languages, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are verb-final languages. Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ), (Eg., Sem. innovation: narrowing of meaning to particular kind of joining, by sewing), to split in two, split one from the other, (proposed source: #502, with regular PAA * > PBA *n; Eg., Berber, Sem. Afroasiatic etymology : Query result The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. Published 1995 Linguistics This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). Many of these roots have other proposed cognates that are not included on the table. innovation: shift to outflow of water, not from body; root *-sa- seen in #540 + *t dur. SOm stat. Anaang It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. p-Masa Gule Jalaa [184] Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two. SLEC Som. *-kep-to cease, no longer function: 327. Other Language Families and Fields of Study. [42] Egyptian was replaced by Arabic as the spoken language of Egypt,[43] but Coptic continues to be the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church. In Afro-Asiatic, there are five main families. [131] This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. innovation: derivation of n. for 'hand'), (Eg., Sem. [34] The Cushitic family is traditionally spit into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic. A set of constraints, developed originally by Joseph Greenberg on the basis of Arabic, has been claimed to be typical for Afroasiatic languages. This great divide has made travel difficult so linguistic boundaries tend to be based on either side. If you are not satisfied with 225345861639 Category:Proto-Afroasiatic language - Wiktionary ref. Afro-Asiatic is a large language family with great diversity. [149], A prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns. ; semantics: egg curves at every point? [29], There are about 30,[34] 50,[35] or 70[36] Cushitic languages, spoken around the Horn of Africa and in Sudan and Tanzania. This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). innovation: 'grow' > 'live,' whence Eg. [82] Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa. crcst test prep; crcst free test questions; paid test; crcst exam prep notes; subscribe For example, the Hamitic component inaccurately suggests the existence of a monophyletic "Hamitic" branch alongside Semitic. To the south lay the other language families of Africa: Niger-Kordofanian, Nilo-Saharan, and Khoisan (Atlas,p74). shared innovation: *als-/*ils- 'tongue': *a-/*i-attrib. [139], Nouns cases are found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic. The only branch that's actually E is Berber. [98] Additionally, the glottal stop () usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between [p] and [f] or [b] and [v]. [145] Edward Lipiski refers to Semitic nouns as having four states: absolute (free/indeterminate), construct, determinate, and predicate. Bendi p-Maban [22] Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance or Germanic languages. It is very difficult to reconstruct ancient Proto-Afroasiatic (PAA) vocabulary, and still more difficult to reconstruct a common morphosyntax. [31] Hausa is the largest Chadic language by native speakers, and is spoken by a large number of people as a lingua franca in Northern Nigeria. Dictionary of Languages. [101] It is generally agreed that only the obstruents had a contrast between voiceless and voiced forms in Proto-Afroasiatic, whereas continuants were voiceless. [54] However, Christopher Ehret (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first. Thanks for viewing our Ebay listing! envisaged a tome citing several hundred reconstructed roots; he did manage, however, to publish over a hundred (53 proto-roots were published, for example, in Hodge 1981). except for Semitic, which is also spoken in the Middle-East and Malta, all branches of the It is, rather, a comparison of Proto-Indo-European with Proto-Afroasiatic. [48] The oldest written attestations of Semitic languages come from Mesopotamia, Northern Syria, and Egypt and date as early as c. 3000 BCE. You guys might disagree with the results form the Shum Laka paper but don't distort their own interpretations of their findings. Afroasiatic languages - Wikipedia [107] Another widespread constraint is against two non-identical lateral obstruents, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic. [120] Ronny Meyer and H. Ekkehard Wolff instead propose that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had no vowels as such, instead employing various syllabic consonants (*l, *m, *n, *r) and semivowels or semivowel-like consonants (*w, *y, *, *, *, *h, *, *, *, *h) to form syllables. Linguistics 450 [38] The oldest text in a Cushitic language probably dates from around 1770. alternative feminine endings *-ay/*-y; corresponding vowel templates for verbal conjugations) which can be reconstructed for a higher-order proto-language (provisionally called "Proto-Berbero-Semitic" by Kossmann & Suchard (2018) and Van Putten (2018)). innovation: narrowing of meaning to tr. Their range extended from the Benue Trough and Lake Chad, to the Nile Valley, the Indus Valley, and Southern Europe during the African Aqualithic Period. < v. in #918 by V > VV; occurrence of PSC *ee (or *e?) Hadza, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Appendix:Proto-Afroasiatic_reconstructions&oldid=68902118, attributive noun and attributive deverbative suffix, attributive and complement deverbative suffix, noun derivation from verb by stem-vowel lengthening, (Sem., Eg. p-Idomoid The Subclassification of Afroasiatic (Afrasian) Appendix 1. [11] Because the term "Afroasiatic" could be taken to mean that the family includes all the languages of Africa and Asia, the term "Afrasian" is sometimes used instead; this name was proposed by Igor Diakonoff (1980) and is mostly used by Russian scholars. [29] The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic. [7] Nevertheless, both dictionaries agree on some items and some proposed cognates are uncontroversial. I.5. Nostratic - Indo-European into stem), to take (bit of food or drink) into the mouth, (* is required by derived noun, root #641 following), (Eg., Sem. The Sumerian and Etruscan languages, usually regarded as language isolates, are thought by some to be Nostratic languages as well. [34], The Egyptian branch consists of a single language, Ancient Egyptian, which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley. BLACK ATHENA The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization - V - $57.73. [130][164] In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a "stative conjugation", used to express the state or result of an action; the same endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is proposed to have been spoken 18,000 years ago near the Horn of Africa (eastern Africa). p-Potou-Akanic [49], There there are also other proposed branches, but none has so far convinced a majority of scholars:[7]. Omotic and Cushitic followed the example and split together, as did Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic in another group. [78] An additional complicating factor is the lack of agreement on the subgroupings of Afroasiatic (see Subgrouping) - this makes associating archaeological evidence with the spread of Afroasiatic particularly difficult. [117] Christopher Ehret proposed a five vowel system with long and short a, e, o, i, and u. [76] It may have originally mostly biconsonantal, to which various affixes (verbal extensions) were then added and lexicalized. The speakers of Boreafrasian migrated north to an arid Sahara climate, then eventually pushed on west and east. [136] These so-called "internal a" or "broken" plurals are securely attested in Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic, although it is unclear if the Chadic examples are an independent development. [179] However, there is no consensus on what the reconstructed set of Afroasiatic pronouns might have looked like. innovation: 'fold over, bend'), (Eg., Sem. Ekoid Carleton Taylor Hodge - JSTOR Proto-Semitic was a contemporary of PIE. Mimi-N p-Kongo [196] Additionally, because Egyptian is written without vowels before the Coptic period, its use for comparative purposes often relies on vocalic reconstructions that themselves depend on comparisons with other Afroasiatic languages. Aunque las estimaciones varan ampliamente, los eruditos creen que se hablaba como un solo idioma hace entre 12.000 y 18.000 aos (12 a 18 kya ), es decir, entre 16.000 y 10.000 a . S. SC Sem. Fig. Tadaksahak, p-Niger-Congo [67][68], An important development in the history of Afroasiatic scholarship - and the history of African linguistics - was the creation of the "Hamitic theory" or "Hamitic hypothesis" by Lepsius, fellow Egyptologist Christian Bunsen, and linguist Christian Bleek. innovation: 'knee'; Berber *afud < *puuz), to be finished, come to an end, be used up, (Sem., Cush. shared innovation: 'raise' > 'lift, pick up'; probable further Ch., Eg., Sem. [66], Meinhof's version of the "Hamitic theory" remained prevalent until the 1940s, when it was definitively disproved by Joseph Greenberg. [4] The most widely spoken modern Afroasiatic language or dialect continuum by far is Arabic, a de facto group of distinct language varieties within the Semitic branch. From the earliest times we have written records from Northern Africa. Temein [40] Scholars have proposed locations both in the Middle East and in Africa. South Bauchi PDF Vowels And Consonants This page was last edited on 28 August 2022, at 11:13. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early scholars of Afroasiatic. [132] Additionally, even when nouns are not cognates, they tend to have the same gender throughout Afroasiatic ("gender stability"). [66] Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten, "Negroid" Chadic languages were in the same family as the "Caucasian" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites. Classification and Index of the Worlds Languages. [178], The forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout the Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic),[127] and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family. ), #209 + Afroasiatic pl. p-Grassfields Fifteen are glossed as names of plants or loose categories of plants. [65] He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. [16] Several issues with the label "Hamito-Semitic" have led to its decline in use by later scholars. Meredith Holt > *itsan-; Omotic innovation: stem + *m n. [75] Consequently, scholars have offered estimates for when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken that range between 18,000 and 8,000 BCE. Semitic and Berber are quite closely related, and both are more distantly connected to Cushitic. [44], The c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists. However, since the 1970s and '80s, comparisons of other Chadic subject pronouns with the Hausa ones have convinced most scholars that the similarity to the prefix conjugation is incidental. The only group with an African origin is Ethiopian Semitic. Berkeley: University of California Press. p-Fali p-Nubian [70] On the one hand, the classification of languages as "Hamitic" relied on linguistic features, such as the presence of male and female grammatical gender; thus Meinhof even split the Chadic family into "Hamito-Chadic" and unrelated non-Hamitic Chadic based on which languages possessed gender. innovation: 'to rub' > 'to scrape'), (* and *a are reconstructed because they are required in derived root #651 below), (#649 + *r diffus. ); to reach out, (only C. reflexes imply 2nd form with reconstructed *a), to remove (from surface), pull, tear, or scrape off, to grumble, sigh, make sounds of complaint, (Eg., Sem. innovation: meaning shift, from avoiding per se to feeling a need or reason to avoid), to wear out, be used up, cease to function, (Eg., Cush., Ch. [183][184] In the Chadic family alone, there are two different roots for "two,"[185] and Berber and Semitic likewise have two different branch-internal roots for "two". p-Gurunsi p-Edoid innovation: 'increase' > 'grow fat, thicken'), (root #141 + *n n. Online Library The Oxford Introduction To Proto Indo European And The The most up to . 4 This was Hodge's term for the ancestral proto-language of Proto-Afroasiatic and Proto-Indo-European based on Proto-Lislakh *lis- 'language' + *laxwos 'people'. London, Bloomsbury, 1998. [192] Thus, it is possible that the numerals in Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other. Answer: Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family, which includes over 400 languages spoken across much of Africa and the Middle East. Though estimations vary widely, it is believed by scholars to have been spoken as a single language around 12,000 to 18,000 years ago (12 to 18 kya ), that is, between 16,000 and 10,000 BC. [93] Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare. A relationship between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic and the Berber languages was perceived as early as the 9th century CE by the Hebrew grammarian and physician Judah ibn Quraysh, who is regarded as a forerunner of Afroasiatic studies. [18][11], The alternative name "Lisramic" is based on the AA root *lis- ("tongue") and the Egyptian word rm ("person"). infix), fruit, seeds, foliage, plant growth in general, (Ch., Sem. as denom. PSom-III. Proto-Cushitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1987) Appendix 3. Proto-Afroasiatic) was spoken, most agree that it was located within a region of Northeast Africa. Proto-Afroasiatic, sometimes also referred to as Proto-Afrasian, is the reconstructed proto-language from which all modern Afroasiatic languages are descended. [15] Mller assumed that there existed a distinct "Hamitic" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic. Proto-Afroasiatic phonology has been the subject of several proposals for reconstruction that are not only different from each other, but also very divergent (cf. [11], Greenberg reintroduced the name "Afroasiatic" in 1960, a name seemingly coined by Maurice Delafosse (as French afroasiatique) in 1914. [122] In some Chadic and some Omotic languages every syllable has to have a tone, whereas in most Cushitic languages this is not the case. p-Songhay [121] Such scholars postulate that tones developed to compensate for lost or reduced syllables, and note that certain tones are often associated with certain syllable-final consonants.[125]. innovation: move > move toward), (probably demon., root #767+ *l n./adj. (abbrev. Proto-Chadic and Proto-Cushitic are likely even older. The languages that evolved from Proto-Arabic have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa.[5]. [163] Three derivational prefixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic: *s- 'causative', *t- 'middle voice' or 'reflexive', and *n- 'passive'.
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