That could imply that they are descended from a common ancestor, Proto-Italo-Celtic, which can be partly reconstructed by the comparative method. Arabic It contains a reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Celtic with ca. Kangean Hypothetical grouping of the Italic and Celtic language families, Michael Weiss, Italo-Celtica: Linguistic and Cultural Points of Contact between Italic and Celtic in, "Revisiting the classification of Gallo-Italic: a dialectometric approach", "NUEVA INSCRIPCIN LUSITANA PROCEDENTE DE PORTALEGRE", "Indo-European and Computational Cladistics", Italo-Celtic Origins and Prehistoric Development of the Irish Language, "17. [1] However, Schrijver believes that in Brythonic, sequences of *wo regularly split into *wa and *wo depending on whether the *w was lenited; in this case, the vowel in the Brythonic descendants would be generalized from the lenited form. Thus, Gaulish petuar[ios], Welsh pedwar "four", but Old Irish cethair and Latin quattuor. Possibly, post-consonantal laryngeals are lost when before pre-tonic close vowels: Possibly, vocalization of laryngeals to * between a *CR cluster and consonantal *j (CRHjV > CRjV), Syllabic laryngeals become *a (CHC > CaC), Syllabic resonants before a voiced unaspirated stop become *Ra (RD > RaD). This Proto-Celtic entry contains reconstructed terms and roots. This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 06:08. Celtic cognates - Animals - Omniglot Assamese Addenda et Corrigenda to "Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic Sequences of velar and *w merge into the labiovelars (it is uncertain if this preceded or followed the next change; that is, whether gw > b or gw > g, but Schumacher 2004 argues on p.372 that this change came first; moreover, it is also found in Proto-Italic, and thus arguably belongs to the previous section): Aspirated stops lose their aspiration and merge with the voiced stops (except that this. Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/mrogis&oldid=67617047, Proto-Celtic terms inherited from Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Celtic terms derived from Proto-Indo-European, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. Proto-Celtic is believed to have had nouns in three genders, three numbers and five to eight cases. Siouan and Pawnee Aromanian MauritianCreole Celtic Dictionary. var gcse = document.createElement('script'); This dictionary is based on structured data extracted on 2023-03-03 from the enwiktionary dump dated 2023-03-01 using wiktextract.. Cape Verdean It discusses the origins of, 165 and using these reconstructions to build up branches of a linguistic genealogical tree is even less promising. Cantonese, LowSaxon Proto-Indo-European Please support me on. This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. We unlock the potential of millions of people worldwide. A friend asked me to look into the origins of the saying An acorn doesn't fall far from the tree. Hmong-Mien That is hardly even a cousin, it is practically a sister! (AncientGreek) (OldPortuguese) As such, the term (s) in this entry are not directly attested, but are hypothesized to have existed based on comparative evidence. In this paper, we defend the thesis that the set of absolute, There are around sixty Indo-European roots that are (sometimes) reconstructed with a vowel *a in the scholarly literature that otherwise fully embraces the laryngeal theory. [4], Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/uostos&oldid=71568684, Proto-Celtic terms derived from Proto-Indo-European, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Ukrainian On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. first in time; beginning : giving rise to; parent substance of a (specified) substance Tagalog Gaul. Bardo - Wikipedia E-Book Collections Title Lists and MARC Records, Latest Financial Press Releases and Reports, Terms and Conditions |Privacy Statement | Cookie Settings |Accessibility | Legal Notice. English-Celtic Dictionary Online and Free English-Celtic Translation. Hungarian Estonian Romance Interlingua In historical linguistics, Italo-Celtic is a hypothetical grouping of the Italic and Celtic branches of the Indo-European language family on the basis of features shared by these two branches and no others. 1 March 2023. Afrikaans Khmer Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Ivi, Dubravka. Portuguese Algonquian and Iroquoian *dug, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, "The Origin of the Welsh Englyn and Kindred Metres", Celto-Germanic Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West, "17. We argue that most IE fox-words go back to two distinct PIE stems: *hlp-e- fox and, By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our. However, Schumacher[4] and Schrijver[5] suggest a date for Proto-Celtic as early as the 13th century BC, the time of the Canegrate culture, in northwest Italy, and the Urnfield culture in Central Europe, implying that the divergence may have already started in the Bronze Age.[why?]. See More Copyright Year: 2009 Hardback Availability: Published ISBN: 978-90-04-17336-1 Publication date: Il termine, trovato al plurale anche nel greco brdoi, sicuramente pi antico e proviene dal proto-celtico *bardos, a sua volta esito del proto-indoeuropeo *grdh--s ( lett. 1500 entries. South American English Proto-Celtic as far as ? English Gujarati Catalan Tupian Celtic Dictionary. Bengali The German philologist Sabine Ziegler, however, drawing parallels with reconstructions of the Proto-Celtic language morphology (whose nouns are classified according to the vowels that characterize their endings), limited the archaic Irish endings of the singular genitive to -i, -as, -os and -ais . Q-Celtic languages may also have /p/ in loan words, though in early borrowings from Welsh into Primitive Irish, /k/ was used by sound substitution due to a lack of a /p/ phoneme at the time: Gaelic pg "kiss" was a later borrowing (from the second word of the Latin phrase osculum pacis "kiss of peace") at a stage where p was borrowed directly as p, without substituting c. The PC vowel system is highly comparable to that reconstructed for PIE by Antoine Meillet. (, Plosives become *x before a different plosive or *s (CC > xC, Cs > xs), The reduplicated suffixless preterite (originating from the PIE reduplicated stative), This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 23:21. Imperative endings in Proto-Celtic were as follows:[14]:147148, The second-person singular imperative was generally endingless in the active; no ending was generally added to athematic verbs. Etymological dictionary of proto-Celtic | WorldCat.org Dravidian (Tashelhit, The list of the Proto-Celtic sound laws is explicitly adduced in the Introduction to the dictionary, and all etymologies in this dictionary are based on the assumption that those sound laws operated in Proto-Celtic. Slavic Italian Falling Apples. Category:Proto-Celtic language - Wiktionary Macedonian Frisian Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic (Leiden; The Teacher's Grammar of English: A Course Book; Rethinking the Administrative Presidency: Trust, Otto Treumann: Graphic Design in the Netherlands; SOON Timepiece Phenomena: adventures in concept; Cartoon Modern: Style and Design in Fifties; Filmstile book; Neuropsychology: From Theory to Practice / Proto-Celtic is generally thought to have been spoken between 1300 and 800 BC, after which it began to split into different languages. Etymology. Penutian Telugu Tatar Proto-Japanese Many types of trees found in the Celtic nations are considered to be sacred, whether as symbols, or due to medicinal properties, or because they are seen as the abode of particular nature spirits.Historically and in folklore, the respect given to trees varies in different parts of the Celtic world. *mori 'body of water, sea' (neuter) (Gaulish Mori- ~ Old Irish muir ~ Welsh mr), E.g. From Proto-Indo-European *mor- (frontier, border). The Celtic languages are the languages descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic", a branch of the greater Indo-European language family. *lm 'hand' (feminine) (Old Irish lm; Welsh llaw, Cornish leuv, Old Breton lom), E.g. Chechen Celtic and Indo-European scholars, linguists interested in etymology and problems of linguistic reconstruction. Novial Long vowels are shortened before a syllable-final resonant (V:RC > VRC); this also shortens long diphthongs. Primary subjunctive formations in Proto-Celtic generally use the e-grade of the verb root, even if the present stem uses the zero-grade. Ancillary study: Sound Change, the Italo-Celtic Linguistic Unity, and the Italian Homeland of Celtic", "Laryngeal Realism and early Insular Celtic orthography", "Old Irish cuire, its congeners, and the ending of the 2nd sg. Ilocano Makasar rather unambiguous despite appeals to archaic retentions or morphological leveling. Ladan One change shows non-exact parallels in Italic: vocalization of syllabic resonants next to laryngeals depending on the environment. Abinomn Proto-Celtic "colui che crea lodi"), la cui radice PIE *gerH- (originariamente "alzare la voce", poi "approvare, magnificare") riscontrabile anche nel latino grtus (e It flourished under the, Abstract The article deals with the origin of the Proto-Indo-European comparative suffix. CrimeanTatar Numbers in Proto-Brythonic How to count in Proto-Brythonic, the reconstructed ancestor of the Brythonic branch of the Insular Celtic languages (Welsh, Cornish, Breton and Cumbric). [9] More recently, Schrijver (2016) has argued that Celtic arose in the Italian Peninsula as the first branch of Italo-Celtic to split off, with areal affinities to Venetic and Sabellian, and identified Proto-Celtic archaeologically with the Canegrate culture of the Late Bronze Age of Italy (c. 13001100 BC).[10]. Jeju Okinawan Celtiadur - Exploring connections between Celtic languages - Omniglot ), *ag-l- (W) buck *agro-, *agr- slaughter *agro-k battlehound *agro-magos- battle . Brittonic. I can only find a few examples of this saying online, but lots of examples of the apple never falls far from the tree and similar sayings. Schrijver supposes that its athematic present was used clause-initially and the thematic conjugation was used when that was not the case.[28]. This is a Swadesh list of words in Proto-Celtic, compared with definitions in English.. Romanian Avar Friulian The Celtic languages are the languages descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic", a branch of the greater Indo-European language family. 1200900 BC. This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. Hawaiian Belenus. (function() { The. 1500 entries. Lojban (OldPersian, MiddlePersian) The Sound of the Proto-Celtic language (Numbers, Words & Story) Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/uostos - Wiktionary UpperSorbian Wyandot Sino-Tibetan: WestCoastBajau Bangala Zealandic) And unaspirated voiced stops /b d / were devoiced to [p t k] word-initially. [PDF] Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic | Semantic Scholar Baltic It is argued that this is a regular development and that the acute accent was frequently transferred analogically to the corresponding full grade forms *Hei- and *Heu-. Two of these verbs are *bwiyeti "to be, exist" (subjunctive *bweti) and *klinutor "to hear" (subjunctive *klowetor).[22]. Armenian Proto-Celtic English *-agno- descendant, child *go-mro- warlike *agos- (Ir. (Middle, Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. [23], The thematic deponent second-person singular imperative ending was *-eso. Czech Zulu, Afroasiatic Whereas Continental Celtic offers plenty of evidence for phonology (the sound system), its records are too scanty to help Read More Proto-Italic Berber Italic and especially Celtic also share several distinctive features with the Hittite language (an Anatolian language) and the Tocharian languages,[11] and those features are certainly archaisms. Proto-Indo-European (PIE) voiced aspirate stops *b, *d, *g/, merge with *b, *d, *g/ in PC. Proto-Celtic language | Britannica Etymological Dictionary of Proto-celtic: 9 (Leiden Indo - Amazon Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary, Category:Requests concerning Proto-Celtic, Given names from Proto-Celtic by language, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Proto-Celtic_language&oldid=70848475, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. NigerCongo Fiji Hindi Appendix:Proto-Celtic Swadesh list - Wiktionary As someone who has studied Classical Latin for years, Proto-Italic is fascinating to me. Burushaski In: This page was last edited on 7 January 2023, at 18:40. Voiceless stop phonemes /t k/ were aspirated word-initially except when preceded by /s/, hence aspirate allophones [t k]. Zazaki Lithuanian Swedish Kho-Bwa, [21], There were also three verbs that did not use -(a)se-, instead straight-out taking thematised primary endings. Egyptian, It contains a reconstructed lexicon, The discussion focuses on the problem of pre-Celtic substratum languages in the British Islands. Wu Proto-Germanic Tahitian It is a descendant of the Proto-Indo-European (h)se-desirative, with i-reduplication in many verbs. Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic (Leiden Formosan Be the first one to, Advanced embedding details, examples, and help, Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014). Malagasy LowerSorbian French Finnish [2][3] Matasovi, however, is confused at how the -o- in *uo- became -a- in Gaulish and Brythonic. github.com Turkic The article by R. Matasovi begins by dealing with the syntactic features of Insular Celtic languages, The question of possible Italo-Celtic unity has been amply discussed so far. The phonological changes from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) to Proto-Celtic (PC) may be summarized as follows. New genetic map reveals Irish people share far more DNA with the Either derivation requires Narten ablaut anyway, leading to a stem vowel i in the singular and e in the plural. It contains a reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Celtic with ca. Dutch [dubious discuss], The copula *esti was irregular. Matasovis conclusion that finally, the fact that there appear to be only a few, Abstract Despite more than a century of research, the origin of the Insular Celtic double system of verbal inflection is still debated. Slovene Konkani John H Elliott - Empires Of The Atlantic World.pdf Manx Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, Dictionaries, Encyclopedias & Bibliographies, Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic, Etymological Dictionary of the Iranian Verb. Min Dong), *m is assimilated or lost before a glide: *p assimilates to *k when another *k follows later in the word (pk > kk). Sumerian Faroese Asturian- Mongolian Mori Garo Basque Russian This number is, 0. Proto-Celtic is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age, ca. On the Isle of Man, the phrase 'fairy tree' often refers to the elder tree. Most verbs took one subjunctive suffix in Proto-Celtic, -(a)s-, followed by the thematic primary endings. (OldMarathi) 188K subscribers Like 57K views 2 years ago This video was made for educational purposes only. The -the in Old Irish is secondary. The focus is on the development of forms from PIE to Proto-Celtic, but histories of individual words are explained in detail, and each lemma is accompanied by an extensive bibliography. How to learn the Proto Celtic language - Quora Gelao Belarusian Breton *e before a resonant and *a (but not *) becomes *a as well (eRa > aRa): *elH-ro > *gelaro > *galaro / *grH-no > *gerano > *garano (Joseph's rule). Dictionary entries. In historical linguistics, Italo-Celtic is a hypothetical grouping of the Italic and Celtic branches of the Indo-European language family on the basis of features shared by these two branches and no others. web pages Raji-Raute, (Cal)- (StandardArabic, Proto-Hellenic 4445 finds it more economical to believe that *sp- remained unchanged in PC, that is, the change *p to * did not happen when *s preceded. (Sallaands) Wutunhua 1500 entries. Paleosiberian Celtic words for fence, hurdle, lattice and related things come from the same root: more details, as do words for left and related things. Indo-Iranian E.g. Uploaded by Nynorsk) Polish Javanese Omissions? "Italo-Celtic Correspondences in Verb Formation". Frisian 1500 entries. Want to add New Dictionary? PDF English - ProtoCeltic WordList - University of Wales The many unusual shared innovations among the Insular Celtic languages are often also presented as evidence against a P- vs Q-Celtic division, but they may instead reflect a common substratum influence from the pre-Celtic languages of Britain and Ireland,[1], or simply continuing contact between the insular languages; in either case they would be irrelevant to the genetic classification of Celtic languages. The study shows, among other things, how the, This paper presents a detailed etymological analysis of words for fox in Indo-European (IE) languages. A collection of Celtic cognates, with definitions, pronunciation, etymologies - includes the modern Celtic languages, older versions of these languages, such as Middle Welsh, Old Irish, and their extinct and reconstructed relatives and ancestors, including Gaulish, Celtiberian, Proto-Brythonic and Proto-Celtic. "Ranko Matasovis Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic (henceforth EDPC), is a welcome and very useful tool for linguistic investigationwe are extremely grateful to Ranko Matasovi for his remarkable achievement." Tibeto-Burman (Nepal)) Egyptian Primitive Irish - Wikipedia Sanskrit EMPIRES OF THE ATLANTIC WORLD EMPIRES OF THE ATLANTIC WORLD Britain and Spain in America 1492-1830 J. H. Elliott Yale University Press New Haven and London German PIE *sp- became Old Irish s (lenited f-, exactly as for PIE *sw-) and Brythonic f; while Schrijver 1995, p.348 argues there was an intermediate stage *s- (in which * remained an independent phoneme until after Proto-Insular Celtic had diverged into Goidelic and Brythonic), McCone 1996, pp. Celtic Lexicon - University of Wales Xiang) TokPisin Sundanese The later belief in a stay of the Israelites at Tanis/Zoan was inspired by the transfer of archaeological . But a simple division into P- / Q-Celtic may be untenable, as it does not do justice to the evidence of the ancient Continental Celtic languages. Ossetian 1.0 1.1 Matasovi, Ranko (2009), "*wasto-", in Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic (Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series; 9), Leiden: Brill, ISBN, page 404 ^ Pokorny, Julius (1959) Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch [Indo-European Etymological Dictionary] (in German), volume 3, Bern . Thai The -ase- variant originated in roots that ended in a laryngeal in Proto-Indo-European; when the *-se- suffix was attached right after a laryngeal, the laryngeal regularly vocalized into *-a-. Our assessments, publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and aid understanding around the world. Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic | Brill Kashubian American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. PDF ProtoCeltic - English WordList - University of Wales Bashkir From comparison between early Old Irish and Gaulish forms it seems that Continental and Insular Celtic verbs developed differently and so the study of Irish and Welsh may have unduly weighted past opinion of Proto-Celtic verb morphology. (Mandarin The introduction contains an overview of the phonological developments from PIE to Proto-Celtic, and the volume includes an appendix treating the probable loanwords from unknown non-IE substrates in Proto-Celtic. Proto-Celtic reconstruction. Proto-Basque Presentation [] For further information, including the full final version of the list, read the Wikipedia article: Swadesh list. The following sound changes are shared with the Italic languages in particular, and are cited in support of the Italo-Celtic hypothesis.[7]. DenYeniseian ash *onno-ash *oulwan- (?) There were two or three major preterite formations in Proto-Celtic, plus another moribund type. This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. Welsh Epenthetic *i is inserted after syllabic liquids when followed by a plosive: Epenthetic *a is inserted before the remaining syllabic resonants: All remaining nonsyllabic laryngeals are lost. ashes *loutwi-ask (*ged-) ask (*erk-, rek-) ask *l-je/o-ask *beg-e/o-, *bex-ske/o- (??) Vietnamese It had both athematic and thematic conjugations in the present tense. It is also possible that some of these are not innovations, but shared conservative features, i.e. Pama-Nyungan var cx = 'partner-pub-0611072400049090:f017sb-yloo'; Israel's Exodus In Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology How to use proto- in a sentence. [8], Emphatic support for an Italo-Celtic clade came from Celtologist Peter Schrijver in 1991. Whereas Continental Celtic offers plenty of evidence for phonology (the sound system), its records are too scanty to help. ScottishGaelic English-Celtic Dictionary Online and Free Celtic Translation These changes are shared by several other Indo-European branches. Guinea-BissauCreole Standard, It contains a reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Celtic with ca. This Proto-Celtic entry contains reconstructed terms and roots. It refers to the idea that people inevitably share traits with or resemble . These cases were nominative, vocative, accusative, dative, genitive, ablative, locative and instrumental. Verbs were formed by adding suffixes to a verbal stem. It is claimed that the morpheme in question, reconstructed here as *-is < *-io-os, evolved in, ABSTRACT De origine scoticae linguae (DOSL, also known as OMulconrys Glossary) is an etymological glossary dating from around the late-seventh or early-eighth century. Italian Alternatively, a reference for Proto-Celtic vocabulary is provided by the University of Wales at the following sites: On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. Bad luck? LOL - English Vocabulary - English - The Free Dictionary Maltese Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic Publication date 2017-07-14 Topics linguistics, historical linguistics, indo-european languages, celtic languages Collection opensource Language English Ido on the Internet. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. Elamite Nouns fall into nine or so declensions, depending on stem. Hakka, Each lemma contains the reflexes of the Proto-Celtic words in the individual Celtic languages, the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) roots from which they developed, as well as the cognate forms from other Indo-European languages. Wiktionary Advertisement Find Similar Words Find similar words to proto-celtic using the buttons below. However, if some of the forms are archaic elements of Proto-Indo-European that were lost in other branches, neither model of post-PIE relationship must be postulated. These endings are:[19]:6267, The Old Irish t-preterite was traditionally assumed to be a divergent evolution from the s-preterite, but that derivation was challenged by Jay Jasanoff, who alleges that they were instead imperfects of Narten presents. Proto-Balto-Slavic Celtic languages share common features with Italic languages that are not found in other branches of Indo-European, suggesting the possibility of an earlier Italo-Celtic linguistic unity. Cornish Tunisian) 1500 entries. Hmong The meaning of PROTO- is first in time. Italo-Celtic - Wikipedia Indonesian Words from the same Proto-Celtic root, via Gaulish and Latin, include claie (wicker rack, trellis, hurdle) in French and cheda (wattled laterals at the base of a traditional cart) in Galician [ source ]. This category contains only the following page. Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel. original Indo-European language features which have disappeared in all other language groups. Persian (VulgarLatin)- The analysis was based on the DNA of 1,000 Irish individuals and 6,000 from Britain and mainland Europe - and confirms the vast extent of migration between the two islands. })(); (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Cornish Dictionary The number of cases is a subject of contention:[12] while Old Irish may have only five, the evidence from Continental Celtic is considered[by whom?] Though Continental Celtic presents much substantiation for Proto-Celtic phonology, and some for its morphology, recorded material is too scanty to allow a secure reconstruction of syntax, though some complete sentences are recorded in the Continental Gaulish and Celtiberian. Early New) The Gaulish conversion of *wo to ua is regular. Uto-Aztecan, Esperanto PIE *p is lost in PC, apparently going through the stages * (possibly a stage *[p])[10] and *h (perhaps seen in the name Hercynia if this is of Celtic origin) before being completely lost word-initially and between vowels. Celtic languages, also spelled Keltic, branch of the Indo-European language family, spoken throughout much of Western Europe in Roman and pre-Roman times and currently known chiefly in the British Isles and in the Brittany peninsula of northwestern France. Capture a web page as it appears now for use as a trusted citation in the future. Somali Dalmatian Corrections? The principal lemmata are alphabetically arranged words reconstructed for Proto-Celtic. The stem might be thematic or athematic, an open or a closed syllable. Latin This page was last edited on 10 May 2021, at 23:31. Japanese Matasovic R. Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic Betawi Kuki-Chin So the main sources for reconstruction come from Insular Celtic languages with the oldest literature found in Old Irish[1] and Middle Welsh,[2] dating back to authors flourishing in the 6th century AD. So many of the sound changes that occurred from Proto-Italic to Old Latin to Classical Latin are so interesting. There are *o-stems, *-stems, *i-stems, *u-stems, dental stems, velar stems, nasal stems, *r-stems and *s-stems. Muskogean Palatovelars merge into the plain velars: Epenthetic *a is inserted after a syllabic, following a vowel in syllables before the accent (VHC > VC), between plosives in non-initial syllables (CHC > CC), Two adjacent dentals become two adjacent sibilants (TT > ss). To be able to compare languages from different cultures, he based his lists on meanings he presumed would be available in as many cultures as possible.